Original ArticleMen's preferences for women's breast size and shape in four cultures
Introduction
Women develop enlarged breasts during puberty, mainly due to the deposition of adipose tissue, and retain them through adulthood. This appears to be unique to humans, as in other primate species enlargement is restricted to periods of pregnancy and lactation. Although the proximate mechanisms involved in permanent breast development are relatively well understood (e.g., Anderson, 1983), the ultimate mechanisms involved in the evolution of permanent breasts are still debated. Hypotheses regarding their function can be classified into those that involve sexual selection and those that primarily rely on mechanisms of natural selection (Arieli, 2004, Barber, 1995). The latter suggests that adipose deposits may serve either as energy reserves for breast-fed infants during food scarcity or as thermo-insulation during cold nights (Pawlowski, 1999).
The sexual selection hypotheses propose that permanently enlarged breasts evolved via male choice. In this context, the specific morphology of women's breasts might be an honest signal of mate value if adipose deposits provide information on lactational capacity and/or fertility (Low, Alexander, & Noonan, 1987). This is supported by a study showing that breast size is positively associated with estrogen levels, which may, in turn, indicate higher potential fertility (Jasienska, Ziomkiewicz, Ellison, Lipson, & Thune, 2004). Consequently, men are expected to be attracted to women with relatively large breasts. Nevertheless, research on attractiveness of women's breast size is inconclusive. Some studies show that men prefer larger breasts (Furnham et al., 1998, Zelazniewicz and Pawlowski, 2011) while others indicate preferences for medium (or medium to large) size (Dixson et al., 2015, Dixson et al., 2011a) or even for small breasts (Furnham & Swami, 2007), and still others report no effect of size on attractiveness judgments (Dixson et al., 2011b, Horvath, 1979). Apart from methodological differences between studies, this mixed set of findings could be partly attributed either to cultural variation in the tested individuals (Dixson et al., 2011c, Valentova et al., 2017) or temporal variation in preferences, although a study testing several cohort samples across the 1990s did not support the latter suggestion (Tantleff-Dunn, 2001). Alternatively, the variation in preferences might be due to interactions with other parts of the body: large breasts are perceived to be more attractive in women with low waist-to-hip ratios (Furnham et al., 1998, Singh and Young, 1995). Furthermore, preferences for breast size may vary systematically across individuals. Zelazniewicz and Pawlowski (2011) found that Polish men with high sociosexuality (i.e., tendency for sexual variety) prefer larger breasts. Similarly, a study from Malaysia found that men of lower socio-economic status prefer larger breasts than their counterparts of higher socio-economic status (Swami & Tovée, 2013b).
It has been further argued that breast symmetry may serve as a marker of developmental stability. Indeed, there is some evidence showing that high breast asymmetry is associated with lower fecundity (Manning et al., 1997, Moller et al., 1995, Scutt et al., 1997) and with higher risk of breast cancer (Scutt et al., 1997). In line with this, perceptual studies show that symmetrical breasts are judged as more attractive (e.g., Dixson et al., 2011c).
Variation in breast morphology is, however, not restricted to size and symmetry—breasts also vary greatly in shape. In general, breast shape changes with age and parity, having a firmer appearance in younger adults (for brevity, we hereafter use the term “firm”, which is a tactile descriptor, even though we primarily refer to their visual appearance on which our participants' preferences were based). Later in life, due to declining firmness of the breasts' fibrous tissue, they become progressively more pendulous; this effect is amplified by many factors, such as age, breast size, parity, weight loss, or smoking (Rinker, Veneracion, & Walsh, 2010). The medical literature labels this phenomenon as breast ptosis, defined as a sagging process where the breast falls onto the chest, flattens, and nipples point downward (Rinker et al., 2010). Based on these changes, Marlowe (1998) proposed the nubility hypothesis, suggesting that breast shape could be used as a reliable marker of residual reproductive value, i.e., the expected future reproductive output of an individual, which is negatively related to age. According to this hypothesis, men's perception of breast attractiveness is expected to be primarily affected by their shape rather than size. Although this hypothesis was formulated more than 15 years ago, to date its predictions have not, to our knowledge, been directly tested.
The aim of this study was to test both preferences for breast size and breast shape. We based our predictions about size preferences on the potential fertility hypothesis (Jasienska et al., 2004) and about shape on the nubility hypothesis (Marlowe, 1998). As preferences may vary across tested populations (Dixson et al., 2011c), we collected attractiveness ratings across several populations varying in their cultural and socio-economic settings, including two African communities (Cameroon, Namibia) and two industrialized urban populations (the Czech Republic, Brazil). We expected to find preferences for firm breasts across the tested countries. In contrast, we expected men to prefer larger breasts in countries with relatively lower living standards and higher resource scarcity (here, Cameroon and Namibia) compared with men in countries with relatively higher living standards (here, the Czech Republic and Brazil). Resource scarcity is frequently associated with preferences for more corpulent bodies (e.g., Wetsman & Marlowe, 1999). As breast size is to some extent positively associated with body mass (Brown et al., 2012), preferences for larger breasts may simply reflect a generalized preference for more corpulent women in communities that experience resource scarcity.
To assess other factors that might be associated with breast preferences, we followed findings from previous research (Dixson et al., 2011c, Zelazniewicz and Pawlowski, 2011). Namely, we also tested effects of age, self-assessed attractiveness, relationship status, and sexual restrictiveness (here assessed in two ways, by self-reported number of sexual partners and by using the Sociosexual Orientation Inventory, SOI-R: Penke & Asendorpf, 2008), each of which has been found to be positively associated with preferences for larger breasts.
Section snippets
Participants
The data were collected as part of several larger projects investigating cross-cultural predictors of physical attractiveness and intrasexual competition. The Brazilian sample consisted of 44 male students of the University of São Paulo (mean age = 23.4ys; SD = 3.89; range 18–34) approached on campus by local researchers (MACV and KJP). São Paulo is a large urban agglomeration with a prevailing economic reliance on industrial production, finance, and retail. Living standards range between moderate
Breast size preferences
Overall, preferences for breast size significantly varied across the four tested cultures (chi-square (6) = 23.9, p = 0.001). We thus tested preferences for breast size in each culture separately. Medium sized breasts were most preferred in Brazil (52.3%, chi-square (2) = 11.2, p = 0.004), the Czech Republic (70.2%, chi-square (1) = 7.7, p = 0.006), and Namibia, although here the effect only approached the formal level of significance (45.7%, chi-square (2) = 5.9, p = 0.054). In Cameroon, large sized breasts
Discussion
The main aim of this study was to test preferences for female breast size and shape in four different cultures. We found that, in three of the four tested cultures, medium size breasts were judged as being the most attractive. However, a substantial portion of the participants selected either large or small size as their most preferred, indicating considerable inter-individual variation in breast size preferences. In contrast, the majority of raters showed preferences for firm breasts, which
Supplementary Materials
The following is the Supplementary data to this article.
Acknowledgements
We thank all our participants for their time, Lydie Kubicová and Markéta Sobotková for their help with data collection, and Jinka Boušová for her helpful comments on previous versions of the paper. This study was supported by the Czech Science Foundation (GA1505048S).
References (45)
The evolutionary psychology of physical attractiveness: Sexual selection and human morphology
Ethology and Sociobiology
(1995)- et al.
The multivariate evolution of female body shape in an artificial digital ecosystem
Evolution and Human Behavior
(2015) - et al.
Exposure to mother's pregnancy and lactation in infancy is associated with sexual attraction to pregnancy and lactation in adulthood
The Journal of Sexual Medicine
(2011) - et al.
Female physical characteristics and intra-sexual competition in women
Personality and Individual Differences
(2014) - et al.
Body weight, waist-to-hip ratio and breast size correlates of ratings of attractiveness and health
Personality and Individual Differences
(2006) - et al.
Human hips, breasts and buttocks: Is fat deceptive?
Ethology and Sociobiology
(1987) - et al.
Breast asymmetry and phenotypic quality in women
Evolution and Human Behavior
(1997) - et al.
Breast asymmetry, sexual selection, and human reproductive success
Ethology and Sociobiology
(1995) - et al.
Body weight, waist-to-hip ratio, breasts, and hips: Role in judgments of female attractiveness and desirability for relationships
Ethology and Sociobiology
(1995) - et al.
Animal signals: Models and terminology
Journal of Theoretical Biology
(1995)
Is beauty in the context-sensitive adaptations of the beholder? Shiwiar use of waist-to-hip ratio in assessments of female mate value
Evolution and Human Behavior
The breast size rating scale: Development and psychometric evaluation
Body Image
How universal are preferences for female waist-to-hip ratios? Evidence from the Hadza of Tanzania
Evolution and Human Behavior
The reproductive role of the human breast
Current Anthropology
Breasts, buttocks, and the camel hump
Israel Journal of Zoology
The relationship between breast size and anthropometric characteristics
American Journal of Human Biology
The role of breast size and areolar pigmentation in perceptions of women's sexual attractiveness, reproductive health, sexual maturity, maternal nurturing abilities, and age
Archives of Sexual Behavior
Eye tracking of men's preferences for female breast size and areola pigmentation
Archives of Sexual Behavior
Eye-tracking men's preferences for waist-to-hip ratio and breast size of women
Archives of Sexual Behavior
Men's preferences for women's breast morphology in New Zealand, Samoa, and Papua New Guinea
Archives of Sexual Behavior
Human physique and sexual attractiveness: Sexual preferences of men and women in Bakossiland, Cameroon
Archives of Sexual Behavior
The UCLA body project II: Breast and body dissatisfaction among African, Asian, European, and Hispanic American college women
Sex Roles
Cited by (41)
Historical and hunter-gatherer perspectives on fast-slow life history strategies
2023, Evolution and Human BehaviorDetermining breast volume preference among patients, plastic surgeons, and laypeople: Is there a perfect breast size?
2022, Journal of Plastic, Reconstructive and Aesthetic SurgeryCitation Excerpt :Even though our study focuses on breast size instead of shape, similar differences can be observed between the three cohorts. Culture may also play a key role in breast size preference.13 Broer and colleagues found that plastic surgeons from various countries prefer differently shaped breasts and emphasize different aspects (e.g., upper pole fullness or areola size).9
Breast symmetry, but not size or volume, predicts salivary immunoglobulin-A (sIgA) in women
2021, Evolution and Human BehaviorCitation Excerpt :Interestingly, we did not find a significant relationship for breast size or volume with sIgA. Recent research has highlighted that cross-culturally, other morphological characteristics of the breast, such as firmness, are more consistently rated as attractive compared to size (Havlíček et al., 2017). Perhaps these characteristics (i.e., symmetry and firmness) are more robustly rated as attractive because they might serve as a more reliable cue to underlying female quality.
Environmental threat influences preferences for sexual dimorphism in male and female faces but not voices or dances
2020, Evolution and Human BehaviorCitation Excerpt :In fact, other-rated and measured FM are partly correlated (Pereira et al., 2019a). Moreover, some static body measures were shown to influence body perception, such as BMI, waist-to-hip ratio, and breast size (Brooks, Shelly, Jordan, Dixson, & B., 2015; Havlíček et al., 2017; Swami & Tovée, 2005; Valentova, Bártová, Štěrbová, & Varella, 2017a), but they were not analyzed in the current study. However, even if there was an overall influence of BMI on dance attractiveness ratings, we would expect the same changes between the control and the experimental condition.