Original ArticleTelling facial metrics: facial width is associated with testosterone levels in men
Introduction
Recently, the facial width-to-height ratio (fWHR: bizygomatic width divided by upper-face height; see Fig. 1) has been identified as a facial metric with links to a range of behavioural traits in men. fWHR has been shown to predict aggression (Carré & McCormick, 2008; but see Deaner et al., 2012, Özener, 2012), deception (Haselhuhn & Wong, 2012), and untrustworthiness (Stirrat & Perrett, 2010), but also more positive behaviours such as achievement striving (Lewis, Lefevre, & Bates, 2012) and self-sacrifice towards the in-group (Stirrat & Perrett, 2012). Moreover, several studies have demonstrated that individuals are able to discern other individuals’ tendency to aggression (Carré, McCormick, & Mondloch, 2009) and trustworthiness (Stirrat & Perrett, 2010) from fWHR. While this research indicates that the face and, in particular, fWHR act as a cue to behaviour, it is currently unclear what constitutes the physiological mechanisms underlying this anatomy–behaviour association. Here, in two samples, we examine whether levels of baseline and reactive testosterone are associated with fWHR. We also investigate the association of testosterone with three well-characterised sexually dimorphic facial metrics; namely, 1) lower-face to whole-face-height, 2) cheekbone prominence, and 3) face-width to lower-face-height (see Fig. 1 and Lefevre et al., 2012, Penton-Voak et al., 2001), alongside a global morphometric measure of facial masculinity (Pound, Penton-Voak, & Surridge, 2009).
Recent work reported sexual dimorphism in fWHR, with males showing higher fWHR than females (Carré and McCormick, 2008, Weston et al., 2007). While this claim of sexual dimorphism in fWHR has since been challenged (Lefevre et al., 2012, Özener, 2012, Stirrat et al., 2012), several of the behaviours linked to fWHR (e.g. aggression, dominance) are also known to be sexually dimorphic. For example, males show consistently higher levels of direct physical aggression than females (Archer, 2006). Testosterone levels, which themselves show large sex differences (e.g. Mazur, Susman, & Edelbrock, 1997), have been proposed as a common underlying factor linking fWHR to behaviour (e.g. Carré & McCormick, 2008).
Consistent with the suggestion that testosterone mediates the association between fWHR and behaviour, a number of behavioural characteristics similar to those associated with fWHR have been linked to both direct and indirect measures of testosterone. For example, basal circulating testosterone levels are associated with levels of dominance in men (e.g. Josephs et al., 2003, Mazur and Booth, 1998). Additionally, second-to-forth digit ratio (2D:4D) – a putative proxy measure of in-utero testosterone exposure (Manning et al., 1998, Manning et al., 2000, Williams et al., 2003) – has been linked to levels of both self-reported (Bailey & Hurd, 2005) and lab-induced aggression (Millet & Dewitte, 2007).
Work seeking to associate testosterone with facial shape has also provided some support for a potential link with fWHR. In an early study, Verdonck, Gaethofs, Carels, and de Zegher (1999) observed that testosterone administration enhanced craniofacial growth in delayed puberty male adolescents. In particular, these authors report enhanced growth of upper and total face height, and the mandible (jawbone) and ramus (upper part of the jawbone) length. However, these results should be treated with some caution as the sample size was small (N = 7) and the boys assessed were all showing delayed puberty, making their development likely not fully comparable to healthy controls.
In addition, several studies have linked testosterone levels to perceived facial masculinity in men. Roney, Hanson, Durante, and Maestripieri (2006) report a moderate correlation (r = .34) between ratings of masculinity in natural, unmodified faces and baseline testosterone levels. Similarly, using a forced-choice paradigm, Penton-Voak and Chen (2004) report a weak, but significant, association between testosterone levels and masculine appearance. In pairs of either natural or composite faces the face higher in testosterone was chosen as more masculine 53% and 57% of the time respectively. The authors argue that only men with very high or very low levels of testosterone may be visually distinguishable in terms of their masculinity.
However, other studies find no links between testosterone and masculinity. A study using almost identical methods to Roney et al. (2006), but with a much larger set of men, found no association between perceived facial masculinity and testosterone levels (Peters, Simmons, & Rhodes, 2008). Similarly, Neave, Laing, Fink, and Manning (2003) reported links of perceived facial masculinity with second-to-forth digit ratio (2D:4D), but not with measured baseline testosterone levels; and Ferdenzi, Lemaître, Leongómez, and Roberts (2011) found no association between perceived facial masculinity and 2D:4D ratio.
Fink et al. (2005) incorporated a formal measure of global facial shape, calculating the difference between the average face-shape of men with high and low 2D:4D ratio. This study found that men with a low digit ratio (associated with higher prenatal testosterone) exhibited a wider jaw and zygomatic arch (i.e. face width) as compared to those with a higher digit ratio. However, direct reports of an association between circulating testosterone levels and facial metrics are (to our knowledge) limited to a single study (Pound et al., 2009). In this study, the authors computed a global facial masculinity index using five empirically derived, sexually dimorphic facial metrics (see Penton-Voak et al., 2001), and measured both baseline and reactive levels of testosterone. Reactive testosterone measures were taken after participants won in a manipulated competitive betting task, a scenario previously shown to significantly elevate testosterone levels (e.g. Archer, 2006). While failing to replicate associations between testosterone measures and perceived facial masculinity, Pound et al. (2009) observed that reactive, but not baseline, testosterone was positively associated with a global facial masculinity measure. It is noteworthy that the association between baseline testosterone and facial masculinity also showed a positive trend towards statistical significance in this study, suggesting that the relationship between face shape and baseline testosterone might not be completely absent, but instead may reflect a weaker link than the association with reactive testosterone.
The above findings reported by Pound et al. (2009) are in line with the “challenge hypothesis” (Archer, 2006, Wingfield et al., 1990), which states that testosterone rises in challenging situations within the mating context, serving as a sexually selected physiological mechanism that calibrates the optimal effort put into intra-sexual competition. Moreover, only the increase in testosterone, rather than baseline testosterone per se, is suggested to associate with aggression and other status-related traits. Accordingly, reactive testosterone may serve as a better predictor of behaviour as compared to baseline levels of testosterone.
Determining whether an association exists between facial structure and testosterone is important in order to advance understanding of the underlying basis for links between behaviour and facial characteristics. Particularly, associations between testosterone and fWHR should be examined in light of recent work indicating that fWHR is not sexually dimorphic (Lefevre et al., 2012, Özener, 2012, Stirrat et al., 2012). Moreover, in line with the challenge hypothesis and the work described above, facial metrics associated with aggression and status (e.g. fWHR) may be more closely linked to testosterone reactivity in response to competitive mating opportunities compared to baseline testosterone measures (Ronay and von Hippel, 2010, Roney et al., 2007, Roney et al., 2003). Accordingly, here we sought to establish whether fWHR, alongside three sexually dimorphic facial metrics (Lefevre et al., 2012, Penton-Voak et al., 2001) and a global measure of facial masculinity (Pound et al., 2009), predicts baseline testosterone (samples 1 and 2) and testosterone reactivity in response to competitive exposure to potential mates in a speed-dating context in (sample 1).
Section snippets
Sample 1
Facial metrics and testosterone measures from 188 Caucasian men (mean age = 33.6 years, SD = 7.5, range: 20 to 54 years) who participated in the Berlin Speed Dating Study (Asendorpf, Penke, & Back, 2011) were analysed. All participants were singles drawn from the general population whose motivation to participate was the chance to find a real-life romantic or sexual partner.
Sample 2
This sample consisted of 79 Caucasian male undergraduate students (mean age: 20.50 years, age range: 18–25 years).
Speed-dating procedure in Sample 1
Participants
Facial metrics and testosterone
Testosterone levels more than three standard deviations from the mean were removed prior to analyses, since outliers of such magnitude are likely caused by imperfect testosterone sampling (e.g. contamination). This reduced the dataset by 3, and 4 participants for baseline and post-exposure testosterone levels, respectively. Furthermore, all testosterone variables were positively skewed and were therefore transformed to normal distribution using square-root transforms.1
Discussion
Evidence from two samples supports a link between circulating testosterone levels and behaviourally-relevant facial structures in adult men; namely, facial width. Of particular interest, facial width-to-height ratio (fWHR) showed positive marginal associations with baseline testosterone in sample 1 and positive significant associations baseline testosterone in sample 2. Moreover, in sample 1 fWHR was positively associated with testosterone reactivity following exposure to potential mates. These
Supplementary Materials
The following are the Supplementary data to this article.
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