Original ArticleAdvanced paternal age is associated with lower facial attractiveness
Introduction
In recent years, growing evidence shows that advanced paternal age at conception is linked with an increased risk of a wide range of neuropsychiatric disorders, including schizophrenia (Brown et al., 2002, Malaspina, 2001, Sipos et al., 2004), autism spectrum disorder (Hultman et al., 2011, Reichenberg et al., 2006), bipolar disorder (Frans et al., 2008), and epilepsy (Vestergaard, Mork, Madsen, & Olsern, 2005) as well as Mendelian disorders (Crow, 2000) and aspects of physical health (Bray, Gunnell, & Smith, 2006). Higher paternal age also predicts lower intelligence (Cannon, 2009) and a higher risk of obesity (Eriksen, Sundet, & Tambs, 2013). This association of higher risk for disease and paternal but not maternal age is explained by the fact that women are born with their full supply of eggs, whereas men continue with sperm production throughout reproductive life (Crow, 2000). In the egg, all cell divisions are completed before birth, whereas the number of cell divisions and chromosome replications that sperm cells have gone through increase with the age at which the sperm is produced. As a consequence, a sperm undergoes many more germline cell divisions than an egg, the difference increasing with advancing age (Crow, 2000). Accordingly, Kong et al. (2012) demonstrated that a much higher number of mutations are transmitted by the father than the mother to their children, and that it is the age of the father which explains nearly all of the new mutations in a child.
A vast body of work has been published about cues, preferences and significance of facial attractiveness (e.g., Fink and Penton-Voak, 2002, Hume and Montgomerie, 2001, Rhodes, 2006, Thornhill and Gangestad, 1999, Weeden and Sabini, 2005). Only little is known, however, about whether facial attractiveness has a genetic basis. Yet, two very recent papers by Mitchem et al. (2013) and Lee et al. (2013) showed heritable genetic influences on facial attractiveness, and Liu et al. (2012) reported on 5 genes influencing facial morphology.
This is the first study investigating whether facial attractiveness is associated with the father's age at conception, which would suggest that new mutations in the father's sperm are expressed in offspring attractiveness. This view is in line with mutation-selection balance theory and fitness-indicator theory. Mutation-selection balance theory proposes that a balance of forces between constantly arising mildly harmful mutations and selection causes variation in genetic quality and phenotypic condition (Keller, 2008, Miller, 2000). Mutation-selection balance is assumed to be particularly important in traits influenced by many genetic loci; this assumption is reasonable for a complex trait such as facial attractiveness because these traits provide a larger target size for mutations (Keller, 2008). Fitness indicator theory proposes that traits can function as reliable indicators of an individual's genetic quality and/or phenotypic condition. A fitness indicator serves as a signal of viability, fertility as well as genetic quality in terms of low mutation load and low genetic inbreeding, to potential mates, rivals, or allies (Arden et al., 2009, Haselton and Miller, 2006, Keller, 2008). Reliable fitness indicators cannot be faked because they are costly and demonstrate an ability to resist perturbations by genetic mutations and/or environmental hazards (Sefcek, Brumbach, Vasquez, & Miller, 2007).
In view of these hypotheses, we would expect that facial attractiveness is sensitive to mutations, and we therefore predict that facial attractiveness should decline with paternal age at conception. We analyzed the association of an individual's father's age at birth and that individual's facial attractiveness, controlling for sex, age as well as mother's age. We used the Wisconsin Longitudinal Study for these analyses because it is one of the most comprehensive longitudinal studies tracing the life of several thousand individuals. Moreover, the suitability of this dataset for research on attractiveness has been recently demonstrated (Jokela, 2009).
Section snippets
Material and methods
The Wisconsin Longitudinal Study (WLS) is a long-term study of a random sample of 10,317 men and women who graduated from Wisconsin high schools in 1957, born in the years 1937–1940. Yearbook photos from 1957, when the subjects were on average 18 years of age, where rated in 2004 and 2008 by judges recruited from roughly the same cohort as the WLS participants and thus aged between 63 to 91 years. Each yearbook photo was rated by six men and six women using a photo-labeled 11-point rating scale
Results
The subject's facial attractiveness decreased significantly more strongly with increasing father's age at subject's birth than with increasing mother's age at subject's birth (Test of difference between correlated correlations, t = 4.09, p < 0.001) (Table 1, Fig. 1). In a multivariate model including both father's and mother's age at subject's birth as well as subject's sex and year of birth, only the effect of father's age at subject's birth remained highly significantly negative, whereas the
Discussion
Our findings of a significant negative effect of paternal age at subject's birth on facial attractiveness, but an inconsistent effect of maternal age at subject's birth, suggest that the age of the father at conception is not only a determinant of the risk for certain diseases (e.g., Crow, 2000, Hultman et al., 2011, Malaspina, 2001) but also predicts facial attractiveness. The magnitude of the paternal age effect on facial attractiveness with an odds ratio of 0.872 for each 10-year increase in
Supplementary Materials
The following are the supplementary data to this article.
Acknowledgments
We thank Geoffrey Miller and the other anonymous reviewers for their constructive and helpful comments and suggestions. This research uses data from the Wisconsin Longitudinal Study (WLS) of the University of Wisconsin-Madison. Since 1991, the WLS has been supported principally by the National Institute of Aging (AG-9775 AG-21079 and AG-033285), with additional support from the Vilas Estate Trust, the National Science Foundation, the Spencer Foundation, and the Graduate School of the University
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2017, Personality and Individual DifferencesCitation Excerpt :Our main independent variable was father's age at respondent's birth measured at Wave 1. Potential confounds that were controlled included mother's age at the respondent's birth (in order to control for potentially independent effects of maternal age on offspring attractiveness), the respondent's birth year (in order to control for potential secular trends in physical attractiveness, as noted by Huber & Fieder, 2014) and the respondent's sex (0 = female, 1 = male; in order to control for potential dimorphic effects on ratings of subject attractiveness). The respondent's race was measured with three dummy variables for Black, Asian and Native American (with White as the reference category) in order to control for the effects of race on perceived attractiveness (e.g. Lewis, 2011).
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2016, Personality and Individual DifferencesCitation Excerpt :Analysis involving the method of correlated vectors furthermore reveals strong positive correlations between the g loading of ability measures and their correlations with FA (Prokosch, Yeo, & Miller, 2005), which indicates that the strongest association between developmental stability and cognitive ability is at the level of g. The idea that mutations have primarily indirect effects on g that are moderated by their effects on developmental stability makes sense of the apparent lack of a direct effect of paternal age (as a proxy for de novo mutations) on offspring g. Direct paternal age effects on offspring developmental stability are expected however and indeed, an effect of this on offspring facial attractiveness (a proxy for FA) has been identified (Huber & Fieder, 2014). Mutation accumulation across multiple generations should also produce secular declines in indicators of developmental stability such as FA, which in turn may reduce g over generations via the effect of ‘antagonized’ canalization.
Facial averageness and genetic quality: Testing heritability, genetic correlation with attractiveness, and the paternal age effect
2016, Evolution and Human BehaviorCitation Excerpt :Furthermore, we did not see the predicted negative correlation between facial averageness or facial attractiveness and paternal age, contrary to the hypothesis that the greater mutation load in older sperm would be reflected in less average faces. In fact, our finding that paternal age at birth is positively associated with facial attractiveness is in the opposite direction to that found in Huber and Fieder (2014). A possible explanation for why we did not find an effect is that any effect of increased mutation load associated with paternal age may not have a substantial effect on facial attractiveness; de novo mutations are very small in number and we would expect an even smaller differential between those from young and old fathers (an increase of about two mutations per year; Kong et al., 2012).
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